Human and Physical Geography

In the early 17th century, the Tokugawa shoguns had shut Japan off from almost all contact with other nations. The Japanese continued, however, to trade with China and with Dutch merchants from Indonesia. They also had diplomatic contact with Korea. Beginning in the early 19th century, Westerners tried to convince the Japanese to open their ports to trade. British, French, Russian, and American officials occasionally anchored off the Japanese coast. Like China, however, Japan repeatedly refused to receive them. 
The Opening of Japan 
In 1853, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry took four ships into what is now Tokyo Harbor. These massive black wooden ships, with their cannons and steam power, astounded and shocked the Japanese. The Tokugawa shogun realized he had no choice but to receive Perry and the letter Perry had brought from U.S. president Millard Fillmore. Fillmore's letter politely asked the shogun to allow free trade between the United States and Japan. Perry delivered it with a threat, however. He would come back with a larger fleet in a year to receive Japan's reply. That reply was the Treaty of Kanagawa of 1854. Under its terms, Japan opened two ports at which U.S. ships could take on supplies. After the United States had pushed open the door, other Western powers soon followed. By 1860, Japan, like China, had granted foreigners permission to trade at several treaty ports. It had also extended extraterritorial rights to many foreign nations. 
Modernization and Industrialization 
The Japanese were angry that the shogun had given in to the foreigners' demands. They turned to Japan's young emperor, Mutsuhito (moot*soo*HEE*toh), who seemed to symbolize the country's sense of pride and nationalism. In 1867, the Tokugawa shogun stepped down, ending the military dictatorships that had lasted since the 12th century. Mutsuhito's reign, which lasted 45 years, is known as the Meiji era. Meiji means "enlightened rule." 
     The Meiji emperor realized that the best way to counter Western influence was to modernize. He sent diplomats to Europe and North America to study Western ways. The Japanese then chose what they believed to be the best that Western civilization had to offer and adapted it to their own country. They used Germany's constitution, with its strong central government, as a model for their own. They attempted to imitate the discipline of the German army and the skill of the British navy as they modernized their military. They adopted the U.S. system of universal public education and required that all Japanese children attend school. 
     The emperor also energetically supported following the Western path of industrialization. By the early 20th century, the Japanese economy was modern and competitive. The country built its first railroad line in 1872. By 1914, Japan had more than 7,000 miles of railroad. Coal production grew from half a million tons in 1875 to more than 21 million tons in 1913. Large, state-supported companies built thousands of factories. Traditional Japanese industries, such as silk production, expanded to give the country unique products to trade. 
     As its strength grew, Japan sought to eliminate the extraterritorial rights of foreigners. The Japanese foreign minister assured foreigners that they could rely on fair treatment in Japan, since its constitution and legal codes were similar to those of European nations. His reasoning was convincing, and in 1894, foreign powers accepted the abolition of their extraterritorial rights. 
Imperial Japan 
By 1890, Japan had become the strongest military power in Asia. As Japan's sense of power grew, the nation also became more imperialistic. As in Europe, national pride motivated imperialist plans. Lacking in natural resources, Japan also needed raw materials to fuel industrialization and food to feed its people. The Japanese were also determined to show the world that they were powerful. 
Sino-Japanese War In 1876, Japan forced Korea to open three ports to Japanese trade. China also considered Korea important, both as a trading partner and a military outpost. In 1885, Japan and China pledged that they would not send their armies into Korea. In June 1894, however, China broke that agreement when rebellions broke out against Korea's king. Chinese troops marched into Korea to help the king. Japan protested and sent its troops to Korea to fight the Chinese. This Sino-Japanese War lasted just a few months. In that time, Japan drove the Chinese out of Korea, destroyed the Chinese navy, and gained a foothold in Manchuria. In 1895, China and Japan signed a peace treaty. This treaty gave Japan its first colonies, Taiwan and the neighboring Pescadores Islands. 
Russo-Japanese War Japan's victory over China changed the world's balance of power. Russia and Japan emerged as the, major powers-and enemies-in East Asia. The two countries soon went to war over Manchuria. In 1903, Japan offered to recognize Russia's rights in Manchuria if the Russians would agree to stay out of Korea. But the Russians refused. In February 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on Russian ships anchored off the coast of Manchuria. In the resulting Russo-Japanese War, Japan drove Russian troops out of Korea and destroyed most of Russia's fleet. The peace treaty ending the war gave Japan the captured territories. It also forced Russia to withdraw from Manchuria and to stay out of Korea. 
Annexation of Korea After defeating Russia, Japan attacked Korea with a vengeance. In 1905, it made Korea a protectorate. Japan sent in "advisers," who grabbed more and more power from the Korean government. The Korean king was unable to rally international support for his regime. In 1907, he gave up control of the country. Within two years the Korean Imperial Army was disbanded. In 1910, Japan officially imposed annexation on Korea, or brought that country under Japan's control. The Japanese were harsh rulers. They shut down Korean newspapers and took over Korean schools, where they replaced Korean subjects with Japanese subjects. They took land away from Korean farmers and gave it to Japanese settlers. They encouraged Japanese businessmen to start industries in Korea, but forbade Koreans from going into business. Resentment of Japan's repressive rule grew, helping to create a strong Korean nationalist movement.